It is usually initiated and carried out by women, who see it as a source of honour, and who fear that failing to have their daughters and granddaughters cut will expose the girls to social exclusion. The practice is rooted in gender inequality, attempts to control women's sexuality, and ideas about purity, modesty, and beauty.
In this last procedure, known as infibulation, a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid the vagina is opened for intercourse and opened further for childbirth. They include removal of the clitoral hood (type 1-a) and clitoral glans (1-b) removal of the inner labia (2-a) and removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva (type 3). Procedures differ according to the country or ethnic group. In half of the countries for which national statistics are available, most girls are cut before the age of five. Typically carried out by a traditional circumciser using a blade, FGM is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond. in 31 countries", including Indonesia, Iraq, Yemen, and 27 African countries including Egypt-had been subjected to one or more types of female genital mutilation. As of 2023, UNICEF estimates that "at least 200 million girls. The practice is found in some countries of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and within their respective diasporas. Sex offender registries in the United Statesįemale genital mutilation ( FGM), also known as female genital cutting, female genital mutilation/cutting ( FGM/C) and female circumcision, is the ritual cutting or removal of some or all of the external female genitalia.Sexual and reproductive health and rights.Sex workers' rights ( Decriminalization.Human Genetics: Problems and Approaches (Springer, Berlin, 1997).Ĭrow, J.F. Miyata, T., Hayashida, H., Kuma, K., Mitsuyasu, K. International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. The combined effect would be to lower the estimates of α m, relative to that when more distantly related species are compared and where ancient nucleotide diversity has less influence on divergence. Therefore, when closely related species are compared, ancient nucleotide diversity may contribute to the estimates of divergence in X, but not in Y. The Y chromosome is typically very much lower in nucleotide diversity than the X 11, probably because the smaller effective population size and the absence of recombination allows selection to wipe out polymorphism. This dichotomy may apply to X-and Y-chromosome sequences. If ancestral polymorphism is low or effectively absent, however, the times to the most recent common ancestor and speciation would be more similar. In other words, the time to the most recent common ancestor may significantly exceed the time to speciation. Ancestral polymorphism can have a significant effect on the average divergence between two species-or two sequences-if they are closely related ( Fig.
Makova and Li 5 also make a more general point about ancient polymorphism and estimates of α m. Although perhaps surprising, this was a seemingly solid observation, given that the amount of sequence data included exceeded that of earlier studies by an order of magnitude. 3, who suggested that α m is only 1.7, using data from a large region transposed from X to Y after the human lineage split with chimpanzees ( Fig. However, these data were recently challenged in a study by Bohossian et al. The observed rate differences correspond to an α m of approximately 4–6, which suggests a rather distinct male bias in hominoids 10. 1 a), the rate of presumably neutral substitutions in primate comparisons is higher on Y than on X. For paralogous genes shared between X and Y ( ZFX/ ZFY, for example Fig. Whereas the X chromosome spends only one-third of the time in males, the Y chromosome is present in males only. Given the great difficulty in identifying random mutations in pedigrees, the issue of sex-specific mutation rates is better approached by molecular evolutionary studies of sex chromosomes 9.
0 kommentar(er)
